Australian Decorative Arts 1788–1900

For the first European settlers, life in the colony of New South Wales was harsh and difficult. Even the simplest and most basic requirements for living were seldom available. 'Making do' must have become a way of life very early in the history of the colony and, as the settlement developed, those with even the most rudimentary skills would soon have found themselves considered valued artisans. Carpenters became cabinet-makers, and blacksmiths must have found their skills called upon to supply much more than chains and leg-irons. Little has survived from, or can be identified as belonging to, the earliest days of the colony. However, as European, and especially British, interest in the colony grew, its exotic flora and fauna, and inhabitants, both Aboriginal and interloper, inspired 'souvenirs' made in Britain to celebrate this distant land and its curiosities. These are often the earliest decorative art objects associated with Australia.

Probably the earliest item of European decorative arts associated with the colony, and a tangible link between the two societies, is the medallion known as the Sydney Cove medallion. Made from clay that was dug at Sydney Cove in 1788 and sent back to Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820) in London by Governor Arthur Phillip (1738-1814), the medallion is the result of Josiah Wedgwood's (1730-1795) friendship with Banks, and his interest in the different properties of foreign clays. Wedgwood, with a remarkable sense of the historical importance of the clay and of the distant settlement, undertook the project, and, in November 1789, the first medallions were completed. The commemorative design by Henry Webber (1754-1826), representing 'Hope encouraging Art and Labour, under the influence of Peace, to pursue the employments necessary to give security and happiness to an infant settlement.', was known by this clumsy but glorious title, so appropriate for the fashion of the time. The medallion's design inspired Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), poet and friend of Josiah Wedgwood, to write a poem about its theme. It was also deemed suitable for use as the frontispiece for Governor Phillips's popular account of the voyage to Botany Bay (Arthur Phillip, The voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay: with an account of the establishment of the colonies of Port Jackson & Norfolk Island [London: John Stockdale, 1789]).

Sent back to Sydney Cove, the first medallions were received with enthusiasm by Governor Phillip, who wrote to Sir Joseph Banks on 26 July 1790: 'Wedgwood has showed the world that our Welsh clay is capable of receiving an Eligant impression ... ' The to-ing and fro-ing of this small object between the centres of Europe and the infant settlement in New South Wales set the pattern for the exchange of ideas and materials that marks the history and development of Australian decorative arts to the present day.

Just as the majority of the earliest houses in the colony were of a makeshift nature, so too was the furniture. Only a few of the earliest European settlers were able to carry the comforts of a 'civilized' existence, including furniture, when they travelled half-way around the world to found the colony. Others, including the convict majority, improvised or did without. As more permanent and more impressive houses and public buildings were erected, the need for suitable furniture increased. Builders, carpenters, and those with even the crudest knowledge of furniture-making were valuable assets in the colony.

At first, and throughout much of the nineteenth century, the most prolific timber-producing tree — the eucalypt — proved suitable for only the crudest furniture because its wood was hard and difficult to season. Various types of she-oak (Casuarina spp.) — at first described as pine — and cedar (Toona australis) were also plentiful, and, when it was discovered they were suitable for all types of building and cabinet-making, they attracted great attention and were soon in common use.

The European interest in making use of new and sometimes exotic timbers was not, of course, confined to meeting the needs of the colony. Examples of exotic woods that might be considered commercially useful or decorative were part of the collections made by early explorers. Official expedition briefings were often specific on this point, like the one received in 1800 by the French explorer, Nicolas Baudin (1754-1803), instructing hims to make 'a special collection for Mme Bonaparte, wife of the First Consul':

You will make up this collection of living animals of all kinds, insects, and especially of birds with beautiful plumage. As regards animals, I don’t need to tell you how to choose between those intended for the menageries and those for a collection of pure pleasure. You will appreciate that it must comprise flowers, shrubs, seeds, shells, precious stones, timber for fine works of marquetry, insects, butterflies, etc.

...

(P.-A.-L. Forfait to Baudin, 17 September 1800, French Ministry of Marine BB4 995,(3),229, quoted in Frank Horner, The French Renaissance: Baudin in Australia 1801-1803 [Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1987].)

Australian timbers were used in Europe for marquetry, veneers, small objects and pieces of furniture. The most notable examples of such work are the collectors' chests and specimen cabinets made in the colony specifically to show off these exotic timbers and often used to house collections of even more exotic bird skins, shells, seeds, and the like.

Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) gave the first informed account of the value of Australian timber for cabinet-making in The Cabinet Dictionary ... (London: W. Smith, 1803). Under the entry 'Botany-Bay-Wood', he wrote:

That there should be such a vast quantity of different species of wood from this island is not surprising, ...

All the specimens of wood imported from thence, that I have collected, are of a hardish texture, and some of it very ponderous; but as that island remains in general still uncultivated, uncivilized, and in a great measure unexplored, there are no materials to assist us in giving a botanical description of the woods; nor scarcely any distinction of names, ...

At various times since the first settlement, we have brought to England a variety of woods that have been acceptable in ornamenting cabinet-work ...

I have been favoured with only four specimens of different species at present; one of which is of an olive hue, intermixed with faintly dark strokes ... The grain is close and straight, ... Another of a dirty orange hue, tolerably well figured, and a very fine grain, ... it is moderately hard in texture, ...

A third sort is extremely beautiful, and nearly as hard as tulip wood. This wood is finely dappled with rich entwining strokes, on a high flesh-coloured ground ... the last of the four is nearly of the same figure and texture, but having a darker ground; and the same kind of dapple, inclining more to a deep brown. It is not so hard as the preceeding sort, but being of a darker and more strongly contrasted figure, ... The common name for all these, is Botany-Bay wood.

It is probable that the first of the timbers described was a species of eucalypt, the second cedar, and the third and fourth different casuarinas.

Cedar, so named because, when cut, it produces a strong odour resembling that of European cedar (Cedrus spp.), was abundant, and its qualities were soon recognized. The wood was light, soft, easy to work and, unlike many other Australian native timbers, easy to cure; it took a high polish and in appearance resembled mahogany, the timber most popular with eighteenth- and nineteenth-century British cabinet-makers. Beginning in the 1820s, large quantities of cedar were exported; some was sent overseas, but most went to other Australian settlements, until the supply was gradually depleted in the last half of the nineteenth century.

In the early nineteenth century, cedar was in such plentiful supply that its use in building was prodigal. Building framework, floors and ceilings as well as doors, sashes, window-frames and shutters, staircases and balustrades, skirting-boards and cornices were all made of cedar. The effect of so much rich, unpainted wood drew this comment in an account of a visit to the colony in 1848:

This profusion of dark coloured unpainted wood in the fitments of a house pleased my eye exceedingly; but my taste was disputed by many — some going so far as to assert that it made a dwelling house look like a London gin-palace!

(G.C. Mundy, Our Antipodes: or, Residences and Rambles in the Australasian Colonies, with a glimpse of the gold fields [London: Richard Bently, 1852].)

The abundant supply of such an easily worked cabinet timber, the fact that most of the artisans were largely untrained in cabinet-making, and the need for an ever-increasing quantity of inexpensive, locally made furniture, resulted in an extraordinary industry. Large quantities of furniture were produced, mostly in cedar, but sometimes in less plentiful woods that were more difficult to work or more decorative in nature. Certainly cabinet-makers' pattern books were available, and colonial furniture was not necessarily any more out of date than the time it took for a ship to reach Australia from Britain. Furniture produced in an outmoded style can be accounted for by the provincial or old-fashioned tastes of those who commissioned and bought the furniture, as well as individual artisans' limited skills and knowledge of recent styles.

By the 1830s, at the height of furniture manufacture in the early nineteenth century, and before the economic depression of the early 1840s, a distinctive Australian style had emerged. The influence of great furniture styles and individual cabinetmakers, especially Thomas Sheraton, is often evident in Australia, but perhaps as a result of the nature of the skills of those involved in its manufacture, Australian furniture of this period possessed a boldness and simplicity not found in its British counterpart. In the absence of gilt mounts, fine carving, stringing, marquetry and other inlays, Australian furniture achieved its effect from unexpected proportions and almost architectural severity.

Following the great changes brought about by the discovery of gold in 1851, the cabinet-making industry expanded to meet an ever-increasing demand. The now more prosperous community could afford to purchase imported furniture, or patronize emporiums with workshops that slavishly copied the latest British trends and fashions in furniture. The effects of mechanization and machine tools and production, which were so evident in London 's Great Exhibition of 1851, and which became the bane of advocates of good design in the decorative arts, were also felt in Australia. In attempts to show what was technically possible, extravagant displays of skill and decoration overcame considerations of usefulness and aesthetics.

The origins of silversmithing in Australia are as haphazard as those of cabinet-making. Many of the earliest Australian silversmiths originally worked in other disciplines. Many who arrived as convicts but were trained or apprenticed as jewellers, clock and watchmakers, and engravers, found their skills in demand. They developed and practised their skills in the colony to an extent that would have been impossible in Europe, with its strict system of apprenticeship and registration with guilds. The artisans’ lack of skill is evident in much of the work produced in the colony. There are, however, examples of outstanding work by masters in the crafts, who came to the colony to pursue what they expected to be a new and untapped market for their work. Many of these silversmiths were of Germanic origin who fled religious and political persecution and settled in South Australia. Numerous examples of fine jewellery, domestic plate and presentation pieces attest to their skills, a sophisticated clientele, and a civic pride in the locally made product.

The discovery of gold, a vastly increased population, and the associated economic boom attracted jewellers and gold and silversmiths to Australia. Newly rich diggers, squatters and businessmen, most without inherited silver and jewellery, had houses to furnish and families to decorate, in order to impress their friends and confirm their positions in the community. Some made their purchases on swaggering trips to the 'mother country', and others bought the small amount of mostly English silver that was available locally, imported by shrewd businessmen. But many, wanting instant gratification, purchased locally made silver and jewellery. There was great demand for largescale, even oversized, presentation silver — usually domestic objects, and most often table decorations and trophies — that often flaunted its peculiarly Australian nature. Emu eggs were used in a seemingly endless range of novelties decorated with all the curiosities of Australian flora and fauna, and similarly decorated jewellery celebrated not only the discovery of gold, but also the luck of individual diggers, specific mines, and boom towns.

The exuberance, and in many instances the vulgarity, of late nineteenth-century silversmithing in Australia superbly expresses the eclectic taste and conservative style, as well as the great interest in the exotic, which is typical of decorative art of the period the world over. In an era beginning to doubt the benefits of machine production, the apparent skill and craftsmanship involved in the creation of such laboriously made works was greatly admired and praised.

Following the enormous success of the Great Exhibition held in London in 1851, the second half of the nineteenth century was punctuated by a series of international and intercolonial exhibitions of both fine and decorative art, natural and mineral resources, and agricultural and technological achievement, shown in rich competitive profusion. In the boom times that followed the discovery of gold, the colonists felt ready to take their place in the world, and displays in international and intercolonial exhibitions became increasingly elaborate, often making splendid advertisements for the colony.

In 1879, the Sydney International Exhibition was Australia's first attempt at an international exhibition, and it was followed the next year by one held in Melbourne. As well as being showcases for Australia's agricultural achievement and natural and mineral resources, the exhibitions brought examples of, and experts on, American, British and European technology into the rapidly developing colony. At the exhibitions, Australian fine and decorative arts were shown side by side with examples from the exhibiting countries. These displays are said to have been responsible for 'the beginning of anything like an intelligent interest in the progress of art in Australia' (Andrew Garran (ed.), Picturesque Atlas of Australasia [Sydney: Picturesque Atlas Publishing Company, 1886-88]).

The decorative arts medium most affected by the extraordinary technological development that characterized the last half of the nineteenth century was pottery, and during that time the industry flourished. Although many of the convicts transported to Australia gave as their trade 'potter', in the colonies' earliest days few of them actually had the chance to practise their trade, and we know little of those who did. Certainly, the need for bricks necessitated the early founding of potteries in the earliest days of the settlement. The production of bottles and storage jars would have followed soon afterwards to meet the needs of a population far from its previous sources of supply.

The earliest known potteries are those established in New South Wales by Samuel Skinner, Jonathan Leak and John Moreton, and James King. Like many other Australian potteries in the nineteenth century, they were short-lived and little is known about them or their production. Several potteries were founded later in the century; some failed, others went through changes of fortune and name, and a few continue today. The best known are the Bendigo Pottery (established 1858) at Epsom in Victoria, Bennett's Magill Pottery (established c.1890) in Adelaide, the Lithgow Valley Colliery Pottery (1879-1896) in New South Wales, John Campbell (1881-1976) in Launceston, Tasmania, and James Campbell's Albion Pottery (1885-c.1950) in Brisbane. Although the economic strength and viability of these potteries lay in the production of bricks and pipes, the rapidly growing population also supported a sideline in domestic pottery. At first, bottles, storage jars, water filters, butter churns, jugs and mixing bowls were offered to the public alongside the less utilitarian, but more easily made, flowerpots and vases. They were followed by teapots, cheese dishes, bread plates, and more difficult-to-make objects necessitating the use of complex moulds.

Many of the objects made in the potteries imitated British originals; some may have been moulded from imported examples. Perhaps a travelling potter took his moulds with him, or made new but similar moulds in another pottery. In the late nineteenth century, the appearance in different Australian colonies of similar, although not identical, objects made at potteries not known to have any connection, is best accounted for in this manner. Decoration was often individualized, sometimes complex, and different colours and styles of glazing were frequently the subject of jealously guarded secrets.

Although usually commercially produced under factory and production line conditions, the Australian pottery of this period shows the remarkable strength and vigour that one might expect of work produced by small potteries and individual potters. The origins of the earliest Australian studio pottery can be traced to such basic beginnings, for often aspiring studio potters learnt their art from the artisans employed at the potteries, and fired their pots in with the teapots and bread plates.

With the growth of the middle class in the early nineteenth century, increasing numbers of men and women had leisure time to spend on creative interests. As the division between art and craft was still a formal one, and as women were largely excluded from pursuing a career or obtaining tuition in the 'high' arts, new media evolved and were developed by them as alternate expressions of creativity. Women with time to devote to the decoration of their houses and gardens pursued a wide variety of arts and crafts that were considered genteel accomplishments. The proliferation of magazines and books giving practical advice and suggestions for new craft pursuits for the leisure activity of women was a phenomenon of the time. Women took up leatherwork, shell work and feather work, they devised numerous household ornaments from scraps of paper and textiles, and they decorated with paint and pokerwork. Much of this activity was devoted to decorating the surfaces of furniture; table tops, screens, boxes, and occasionally larger, more ambitious pieces of furniture were decorated with paint, pokerwork, scraps of pasted paper and stencilling.

The enthusiasm fostered by the centennial celebrations of 1888, commemorating the first British settlement in Australia, and a growing awareness of a national identity, led to the popularity of Australian motifs in all areas of the arts, but especially the decorative arts. This fashion, and the growth of a romantic pride in an Australian way of life and things peculiarly Australian, reached its zenith around the turn of the century when all manner of craftwork featured Australian flora and fauna. Sadly, however, none of the plans devised by eccentric Frenchman Lucien Henry (1850-1896) for an Australian school of decorative arts ever eventuated. His criticism of the attitudes of Australian 'connoisseurs' to Australian motifs, published in an article devoted to the decorative arts in the journal Australian Art, in February 1888, held true:

They may say what they like, and pass their own judgments on the Australian flora and fauna, which do not appear to convey much signification to them. According to their dictum the flowers have no perfume, the Waratah is brutal in form and colour, the Banksia is still, prickly and like an egret, the Stenocarpus belongs to engineering, and gives a splendid idea of an unsuccessful attempt at perpetual motion, the Kangaroo is stupid and a pest; as for the Lyre Bird, a bad pun with some allusion to press men or politicians and it is dealt with. The word prejudice is far too weak to characterize the feelings entertained towards Australian elements, and it still requires long years of hard and patient work to introduce them into the Decorative Arts.

The influence of the British Art and Craft Movement in Australia was considerable, and lasted well into the twentieth century. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, women, often now leading more comfortable existences and encouraged by the suffragette movement, eschewed the traditional genteel hobbies practised by their mothers and grandmothers and joined men with an interest in the more physically demanding crafts of wood-carving, furniture-making, metalwork and pottery. The products of their skills are among the most interesting craftwork of the time and represent the very beginning of the modern crafts movement.

John McPhee
Senior Curator of Australian Art

Content on this page sourced from: McPhee, John and Christopher Menz. Australian Decorative Arts, 1788-1900. Canberra: Australian National Gallery, 1988.