The Wild Ones

Expressionism dominated Germany's cultural life for the first three decades of this century, affecting a diverse range of disciplines including architecture, the visual arts, literature, drama and film. The movement was not unified by a single style or common aesthetic, the term being used from 1911 to characterise the newest directions in European painting. During the First World War (1914—18) and its aftermath, Expressionism became increasingly socially and politically oriented and many more artists associated themselves with it.

Despite the many styles, certain underlying views were held in common by the Expressionists. In particular, the artists shared strong feelings against the established order, combined with a variety of Utopian attitudes. There were also common elements in the different stylistic approaches of the artists, including a defiant rejection of naturalism, and experimentation with colour, form, space and imagery. Whereas pre-war Expressionists were concerned with emotional or visionary experience, their post-war counterparts focused more on social and political realities.

The artists were committed to printmaking as a primary artistic activity. This medium was revolutionised by the Brücke [Bridge] artists in particular, who, in their search for immediacy of expression, overthrew conventional technical practices and standards. Their unorthodox approach marks a radical departure in the history of printmaking, and had a profound impact on the art of the twentieth century. In the years immediately following the First World War, there was a widespread enthusiasm for making original prints, especially among Expressionist artists. Eager to cater to the new market which developed, dealers and publishers commissioned portfolios of prints and illustrations from the Brücke artists, as well as from the second generation Expressionists.

There were several precursors, including Van Gogh, Gauguin and Munch: the impact of this earlier generation of artists was acknowledged as early as 1912, when their art was included in the Sonderbund exhibition in Cologne, which was the first attempt to provide an overview of the movement. The Norwegian-born artist Edvard Munch was honoured with an entire room in the German section of the exhibition, where over thirty of his paintings were hung. His influence was greatest on the young Brücke artists, who made numerous unsuccessful attempts between 1906 and 1909 to enlist him as one of their group. Munch's impact lay in his expressive exploration of fundamental human emotions. In the years around the turn of the century, he had emphatically pursued new expressive means in the depiction of personal anguish, obsessions or spiritual concerns. Such subject matter became the hallmark of a new generation of German artists who were interested in the expressive potential of art.

Munch's approach to the techniques and conventions of the print medium was also a direct inspiration for the younger artists, particularly his rejection of the laborious craftsmanship and meticulous finish found in traditional printmaking. His vigorous method of gouging and exploitation of the block's grain to achieve rich textures were devices adopted by the Brücke artists. They are evident in Munch's woodcut Im männlichen Gehirn [In man's brain] 1897, where the roughly chiselled lines and red inking of the distinctively grained surface of the block highlight the emotional quality of the subject — obsession. Woman, the object of man's passion, is depicted as a figure floating above the head of a man. The man's face is enveloped in swirling waves of desire, while the woman hovers above as a memory trapped in his brain.

One of Munch's greatest innovations in printmaking was his invention of the jigsaw method of colour woodblock printing, where a single block was sawn into pieces, separately inked, and then reassembled for printing. Unlike conventional colour woodcuts, in which each colour is printed sequentially from separate blocks, this method enabled the artist to print several colours at once, simplifying both process and image. The dramatic impact of this technique can be seen in Munch's famous woodcut Der Kuss [The kiss], which he worked and reworked between 1897 and 1902. In the fourth version, the block was sawn into two pieces following the contours of the figures: this further enhanced the fusion of the separate forms of embracing lovers into a single stark entity.

The emergence Of Expressionism in Germany is associated with the formation of the Brücke in Dresden in 1905. Four young architecture students, E.L. Kirchner, Erich Heckel, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff and Fritz Bleyl, decided to form an independent artists' group that would create a new future out of the conjunction of art and life. In 1906 two further members joined, Max Pechstein, and, for a short period, the older artist Emil Nolde. The group issued a brief outline of its guiding tenets:

While this does not set out any aesthetic program, other than the direct and genuine expression of inner feeling, the statement makes clear the group's opposition to established traditions, as well as their Utopian belief that art could transform the future. Both of these attitudes had been influenced by the writings of Nietzsche, who stressed that sterile, middle-class values needed to be overcome to enable new forms of creative expression. He had also assigned to the individual, and the artist, special roles in seeking out new creative freedoms.

Established powers, including the art establishment, were strongly opposed by the Brücke artists. Rejecting traditional artistic training (only Pechstein had received any formal tuition), they taught themselves by working together. Immediacy of expression was sought above all else; and one of their joint exercises intended to promote this was to sketch quickly from the model in fifteen-minute sessions. The essence of a scene or a pose was therefore captured with the most direct and economical of means. This approach, which was combined in their work with gestural brushwork, wilful distortions of form and intense colour, saw the foundation of a style that was opposed to academic standards and craftsmanship. The artists denied traditional notions of finish with their vigorous and unorthodox ways of making prints. Woodblocks were roughly cut with gouges, rusted etching plates were occasionally used, and unconventional methods employed to attain grainy surface textures in lithographs. The artists also sought variation between impressions, and experimented with manipulating both the inking and printing of their matrices to achieve as rich a range of effects as possible. The Brücke prints display an immediacy of execution and effect as well as a technical inventiveness that is unrivalled in the history of printmaking.

The Brücke was not only a fraternity of artists, they also functioned as an exhibiting society, arranging exhibitions of their work in Dresden, as well as touring them throughout Germany. They actively set about fostering the new generation of 'appreciators', described in their program, by creating a circle of so-called 'passive members' who helped to finance the group's activities. In exchange for an annual fee, these members received a portfolio of three or four original prints by Brücke artists, as well as an annual report illustrated with original graphics. The portfolios from 1909 to 1912 typify the group's communal approach to their projects, for each contained three prints by one member, which were presented inside a wrapper with a printed design by another member. In 1911, the sixth portfolio was devoted to the prints of Heckel, presented in a wrapper designed by Max Pechstein, with the image Kniender Akt mit Schale [Kneeling nude with bowl]. Within the portfolio Heckel's woodcut masterpiece Stehendes Kind [Standing child] is to be found. This iconic image of the teenage model, Franzi, brilliantly displays Heckel's primitivist style. The influence of Oceanic and African sculpture is evident in the angularity of the limbs and in her mask-like face which engages the viewer with its enigmatic smile and half-closed eyes. The expressive power of the work is intensified by the vivid, unmixed colours, against which the white of the paper defining the prepubescent body stands out.

The Brücke's appreciation of what was then known as 'primitive' art and artefacts grew out of their search for a more authentic means of expression. They believed this to be the expression of a purer, more primal state of human existence. As well as introducing primitivist styles and motifs into their work, they idealised the lifestyles of 'primitive' cultures, seeing in them a communion between man and nature which they believed had been lost in their own 'civilised' society; and they consciously adopted such a lifestyle.

On bathing trips to the Moritzburg lakes in the summers of 1909 and 1910, accompanied by their young models, they bathed nude, feasted and sported in the open air, and played with bows and arrows. Nude figures in the landscape feature in the work of the Brücke artists, epitomising their Utopian ideal of an all-embracing harmony in which people are at one with nature. Heckel's lithograph Szene im Wald [Forest scene] is one of a number of works depicting women reclining in a forest glade, and may well be based upon the 1909 visit to the Moritzburg lakes.

In 1908, drawn by the emerging avant-garde in the capital, Pechstein moved from Dresden to Berlin. By 1911 he was joined by most of the other Brücke members. Immersion in the stimulating metropolis provided the artists with new subject matter — the excitement and alienation of city life. Berlin's crowded, jostling streets drew their attention, as did the low dives of the demi-monde with their smoke-filled cabarets, brothels and music halls. Here, singing, dancing and drinking went hand in hand with prostitution, in scenes which Nolde was to describe as 'sensuously muggy'. Among the group, Kirchner was the artist most drawn to these subjects, maintaining a prolonged fascination with urban themes:

Kirchner was also captivated by the dancer as a subject, for the dancer provided elements of movement, sensuality and liveliness, sometimes in a crude fashion, always in an exciting one. Sitzende Tänzerin [Dancer sitting] 1915 is characteristic of Kirchner's style following his move to Berlin. It is rendered in a jagged, lively manner and reveals the increasing influence of African sculpture on his art at this period. The dancer is swathed in brightly coloured fabric and, even while seated, exudes vitality and attitude. With a mask-like visage she stares out from the picture-plane in bemused arrogance.

The move to Berlin spelled the inevitable fragmentation and demise of the Brücke group. Involvement with other artists and associations in the capital led to the breakdown of the intense communality that had characterised their years in Dresden. In 1912, despite increasing public recognition for the group (including their representation in the Sonderbund exhibition), Pechstein was expelled by the other members for exhibiting with another artists' association. In May 1913 the group disbanded; the event was precipitated by Kirchner's written account of the history of the Brücke, which was repudiated by the other members who believed that he had grossly exaggerated his own role. The onset of the war in 1914 saw the final splintering of the Brücke ideals of fraternity and harmony between humankind and nature.

One of German Expressionism's most powerful images — Heckel's Männerbildnis [Portrait of a man] of 1919 (although possibly composed earlier) — reflects the trauma of wartime experience or the build up of the preceding hostilities. Heckel had been an ambulance orderly and exposure to the horrors of war caused him considerable suffering. After this experience, his art was to become more symbolic and melancholy. In the months following the end of the war there was extreme political and social unrest in Germany, compounded by a severe shortage of food and supplies. In this impressive woodcut the man depicted (frequently described as the artist) is gaunt and drawn. His withdrawn and resigned manner suggests also a personal crisis. The exaggerated, elongated features, recalling the influence of the anticlassical Northern Gothic art style, combined with the use of colour — ochre against a bilious green — denote a physical and spiritual malaise. Heckel has produced a powerful portrait of modern man who is witness to the new age of uncertainty: anxious, melancholy and introspective.

The second group of artists associated with Expressionism emerged in Munich in 1912 with the publication of the seminal almanac, Der blaue Reiter [The blue rider]. Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc arranged and edited this publication, and they were also the driving force behind the two other Blaue Reiter events, the exhibitions of December 1911 and February 1912. Der blaue Reiter was not a formal artists' group, but rather the name associated with these three endeavours. Its renown lies ultimately with the achievements of Kandinsky and Marc, who pursued the important breakthrough to abstraction in the years before the First World War.

Kandinsky and Marc invited a diverse group of artists to exhibit in the Blaue Reiter exhibitions, juxtaposing their own work and that of their colleagues from Munich and Berlin with work by avant-garde artists from France and Russia. They were not attempting to define a movement or a stylistic development. Their ideas were clearly and forcefully presented in the Der blaue Reiter almanac, which included numerous texts on the visual arts, music and the theatre, musical scores and reproductions of avant-garde art, folk, primitive and children's art, medieval woodcuts and sculpture and the work of Cézanne, Van Gogh, Gauguin and Rousseau. In their texts for this publication, Kandinsky and Marc stressed the importance of the spiritual in all forms of artistic endeavour, and the adoption of a material form that showed an emotional and intellectual content. They were not interested in the unmediated expression of feelings and experiences, as were the Brücke artists, but strove to make their work reflect the new spiritual age which they believed was dawning. This they did in an increasingly non-representational way.

This concern with the spiritual was integral to Kandinsky's deliberate development towards abstraction. He increasingly sought the liberation of form and colour from their simply perceived relationship to the material world, using them instead as elements of the expression of inner necessity. Kandinsky's book Klänge [Sounds] is a key work in this development, intended by the artist to illustrate his artistic evolution from figuration to abstraction. Published in 1913, Klänge contains fifty-six woodcuts executed between 1907 and 1912. These accompany prose-poems by the artist, in which a parallel abstraction is evident.

In the year that Kandinsky's book was published, Marc began work on a series of woodcuts to illustrate the Bible, a project which unfortunately never saw completion. Four blocks illustrating Genesis were cut which exemplify Marc's style just before his final move into abstraction in 1914. Two of these, Schöpfungsgeschichte I and Il [Creation I and II], show the fusion of animal and landscape forms through which the artist aimed at expressing the universal cosmic order that he perceived beyond all things.

The outbreak of war in 1914 put an end to Blaue Reiter activities. Kandinsky returned to his native Russia; Marc enlisted and, tragically, was killed in 1916.

The effect of the war was devastating. From this experience, and the social turmoil that ensued, new themes and styles emerged in the work of a new generation of Expressionists. Artists such as George Grosz, Otto Dix and Max Beckmann turned their attention to the world around and the post-war traumas in society. The ravages of war, the inhuman face of capitalism, sexual profligacy and boredom with existence were just some of the themes which appeared, with interpretations frequently informed by socialist or other left-wing political views.

George Grosz developed human dramas in his work by setting his subjects in compressed, inhospitable and often apocalyptic cityscapes. The first image in his print series Die Räuber [The robbers] 1922 features a captain of industry as one of society's 'robbers': repulsive in appearance and grotesque in demeanour, he stands before the wasteland of his own making. Polluting smoke billows from chimneys, while tiny dehumanised figures work like ants for his profit. It is particularly interesting that Grosz deliberately chose a commercial printing process — photolithography — to produce these and, indeed, the vast majority of his prints. He was not interested in the game of making luscious or richly printed impressions.

In 1922 Max Beckmann published his portfolio of drypoints, Jahrmarkt [Annual fair]. Although not as overtly political as Grosz's series, the subject is social corruption of the modern city — portrayed symbolically by Beckmann through the world of the circus and its performers. Beckmann's characters appear isolated, having little interaction with one another and are crammed into the spaces of a dysfunctional world. For Beckmann, the artificiality of the theatre held a special significance in relation to everyday life 'If one comprehends all of this, the entire war or even all of life only as a scene in the theatre of the infinity, everything is much easier to bear', he commented.

By the mid-1920s, the style of these artists came to be known as the 'New Objectivity' [Neue Sachlichkeit] because of its increasing engagement with social and political realities. The Utopian ideals and inner focus of the first generation Expressionists were repudiated by these later artists who included the realities of life in their art. With the further social and political disruption of the next decade which saw the rise of Nazism, such a style could not flourish; it was proclaimed degenerate and formally silenced.

Jane Kinsman

Curator of International Prints, Drawings and Illustrated Books, National Gallery of Australia

Cathy Leahy

Assistant Curator, Prints and Drawings, National Gallery of Victoria

with assistance from

Samantha Comte

Assistant Curator, International Prints, Drawings and Illustrated Books, National Gallery of Australia

The exhibition is drawn from the collections of the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra, and the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne.